Nature Podcast

00:45 Researchers develop a new glue and test it on a rubber duck Aided by machine learning, researchers have developed a super-sticky compound that works as an underwater adhesive. Inspired by animals like barnacles, the team developed a new kind of a material called a hydrogel. The material is capable of securely fastening objects together even when immersed in salty water— a challenge for existing adhesives. To show off its properties the researchers applied it to a rubber duck, which stuck firmly to a rock on a beach despite being battered by waves. Research Article: Liao et al. News and Views: AI learns from nature to design super-adhesive gels that work underwater 07:37 Research Highlights The tomato-infused origins of the modern potato — plus, a specific group of stem cells that may help to drive osteoarthritis. Research Highlight: Potato, tomato: the roots of the modern tater Research Highlight: Ageing stem cells in the knees drive arthritis damage 09:46 The diversity of microbes within living trees By taking samples from over 150 trees in a forest in the US, researchers have revealed a previously unknown community of microorganisms living there. While the microbiomes of animals have been well explored, studies looking at the microbes living inside trees are limited. In this work the team show distinct populations of microbes living within different parts of a tree, and huge diversity in populations between trees. The team behind the work hope these findings will lead to a greater understanding of tree physiology and the role these microbes play in broader ecosystems. Research Article: Arnold et al. 18:46 The ‘de-extinction’ debate Back in April, the company Colossal Biosciences claimed to have de-extincted dire wolves, a large-bodied wolf species that once roamed North America. We discuss the science behind this technology, and the debates within the research community surrounding Colossal’s announcement. News Feature: This company claimed to ‘de-extinct’ dire wolves. Then the fighting started. Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:45 The deepest ecosystem ever discovered Researchers have dived down to more than 9,000 metres below the surface of the Pacific and discovered surprisingly complex communities of life living in deep ocean trenches. The new research shows an array of animal life that appears to be using methane as a source of energy. The researchers are planning more dives to learn more about this mysterious ecosystem and how these animals can thrive despite the extreme pressure they face. Research Article: Peng et al 09:36 Research Highlights A fossilized leg bone reveals an 11-million-year-old fight between a terror bird and a caiman, plus the anti-ageing secret of ‘immortal’ stars. Research Highlight: Rumble in the Miocene: terror bird versus caiman Research Highlight: ‘Immortal’ stars have an elixir of youth: dark matter 11:45 How infections could awaken dormant cancer New research reveals that infection by a respiratory virus has the potential to awaken dormant cancer cells. In mice studies, a team showed that inflammation caused by infection with influenza or SARS-CoV-2 could initiate the awakening of breast cancer cells that had metastasized to the lungs. Observational studies using human health data also showed that a COVID-19 infection was associated with increased risk of lung metastasis and cancer death. While the precise mechanisms are unknown, the team say that understanding the process could help mitigate any risks of cancer progression caused by a viral infection. Research Article: Chia et al. News and Views: Inflammation during viral infection can rouse dormant cancer cells 21:45 Will physicists ever agree on quantum mechanics? A survey of more than 1,100 physicists has revealed that there are widely different interpretations of what quantum mechanics means for our understanding or reality. Reporter Lizzie Gibney takes us through the different ideas physicists have and asks if such disagreements even matter. Nature: Physicists disagree wildly on what quantum mechanics says about reality, Nature survey shows Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:46 How hot can solid gold get? A new study suggests that gold can be superheated far beyond its melting point without it becoming a liquid. Using an intense burst from a laser, a team heated a gold foil to 14 times its melting point, far beyond a theoretical limit put forward in previous studies. The team suggest that the speed at which they heated the gold allowed them to shoot past this limit, but there is scepticism about whether the team actually achieved the level of heating they report. Research Article: White et al. News and Views: Solid gold superheated to 14 times its melting temperature 10:05 Research Highlights How island life led to huge wingspans for flying foxes, and how a sugary diet ‘rewires’ a mouse’s brain. Research Highlight: How the world’s biggest bats got their enormous wingspans Research Highlight: How sugar overload in early life affects the brain later 12:30 Researchers warn about the threat of nuclear war With increasing political polarisation and more nuclear-armed nations, researchers are warning about the threat of nuclear war. Reporter Alex Witze has been speaking to scientists, and she told us about their chief concerns and how to avoid a conflict in an era of AI and misinformation. News Feature: How to avoid nuclear war in an era of AI and misinformation 23:22 Briefing Chat What a new AI model from China means for science, and why some dolphins use sponges to hunt. Nature: ‘Another DeepSeek moment’: Chinese AI model Kimi K2 stirs excitement Associated Press: Some Australian dolphins use sponges to hunt fish, but it’s harder than it looks Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

A simple methodological error meant that for years researchers considered drinking moderate amounts of alcohol to be healthy. Now plenty of evidence suggests that isn't the case, but errors like this still plague the scientific literature. So, how can the scientific literature become more error-free? In the first episode of this two-part series, to determine what steps can be taken to help clean up science we explore peer review, replications, AI and even paying people to detect errors. This episode was written and produced by Nick Petrić Howe. Dan Fox was the editor. The Swiss horn music came from DangerLaef on Freesound. All other sound effects and music were provided by Triple Scoop Music. Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In this episode: 00:48 The ancient mega-predator with a ‘stealth mode’ The extinct marine mega-predator Temnodontosaurus had specialised adaptations to stealthily hunt its prey, suggests an analysis of a fossil flipper. Although Temnodontosaurus was a member of a well-studied group of marine reptiles called ichthyosaurs, its lifestyle has been a mystery due to a lack of preserved soft tissue. Now, a team have studied the fossil remains of a fore-fin, revealing several anatomical details that likely reduced low-frequency noise as the animal swam. It’s thought that these adaptations helped Temnodontosaurus stalk other ichthyosaurs and squid-like creatures that made up its prey. Research Article: Lindgren et al. 09:46 Research Highlights Research shows that future space probes could navigate using two stars as reference points, and how objects are more memorable when people encounter them while feeling positive emotions. Research Highlight: Lonely spacecraft can navigate the stars Research Highlight: Memory gets a boost from positive emotion 12:11 ‘Leaky’ mitochondria could be the root cause of sleep Cumulative damage to mitochondria during waking hours could be a key driver for the need to sleep, according to new research. In fruit fly experiments, a team showed that being awake caused damage to mitochondria found in a specific set of neurons. Once this damage reaches a threshold it kicks off a process that ultimately leads to sleep. Although it’s unclear if this process occurs in humans, the researchers think this need for sleep may be an ancient process that coincided with the evolution of organisms with power-hungry nervous systems. Research Article: Sarnataro et al. 23:04 The secret messages used to trick peer-review AI Researchers have been sneaking text into their papers designed to trick AI tools into giving them a positive peer-review report. Multiple instances of these prompts have been found, which are typically hidden using white text or an extremely small font invisible to humans. We discuss the rise in this practice and what is being done to tackle it. Nature: Scientists hide messages in papers to game AI peer review Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Vianet Djenguet is an award-winning wildlife film-maker and camera operator whose work has featured in a number of major nature documentaries. In this podcast, Vianet joins us to talk about his career, how wildlife film-making have changed, and his experiences working with local researchers to capture footage of endangered animals on the new television series The Wild Ones. Music supplied by SPD/Triple Scoop Music/Getty Images Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:48 The past 35,000 years of disease Ancient DNA evidence shows that the advent of agriculture led to more infectious disease among humans, with pathogens from animals only showing up 6,500 years ago. The DNA, extracted from human teeth, shows the history of diseases present in Eurasia over tens of thousands of years. The approach used could be a powerful way to understand how illness has shaped humanity, but it is unable to detect some bacteria that enter the bloodstream at low concentrations or some viruses, so future work could seek to fill that gap. Research Article: Sikora et al. News: Animal diseases leapt to humans when we started keeping livestock 10:58 Research Highlights DNA studies confirm that sardines were a major ingredient of the Roman Empire’s favourite fish sauce, and how analysis of animal manure identified global hotspots for antibiotic-resistance genes. Research Highlight: Ancient DNA helps trace stinky Roman fish sauce to its source Research Highlight: Poo of farm animals teems with drug-resistance genes 13:17 Using whale poo to study toxic algae in the Arctic A 19-year experiment sampling bowhead whale faeces reveals a link between warming Arctic waters and increasing levels of toxic algae, researchers say. While climate change is expected to drive increases in the prevalence of harmful algal blooms, long-term data is lacking. To address this, a team worked with indigenous communities to collect and sample whale poo, showing that increases in algal toxins in the Arctic food chain are linked to rising ocean temperatures. The researchers suggest levels of these toxins need to be closely monitored to protect Arctic communities that depend on marine resources for food. Research Article: Lefebvre et al. 24:06 Briefing Chat An object from beyond our solar system has been spotted zipping past Jupiter, and evidence that Neanderthals created ‘fat factories’ to extract vital nutrients from animal bones. Nature: Neanderthals boiled bones in ‘fat factories’ to enrich their lean diet Nature: Rare find: interstellar visitor seen blazing through our Solar System Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Questions and doubts about vaccines are on the rise worldwide and public-health specialists worry that these trends could worsen. But while the shift in public attitudes towards immunizations can leave scientists, physicians and many others feeling disheartened, a surge of research on vaccine hesitancy is starting to offer ways to address the issue. This is an audio version of our Feature How to speak to a vaccine sceptic: research reveals what works Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In this episode: 00:45 Why animals evolve to be imperfect mimics Many harmless animals mimic dangerous ones to avoid being eaten, but often this fakery is inaccurate. To help explain why evolution sometimes favours imperfect mimicry, a team 3D printed a range of imaginary insects. The novel creatures were designed to mimic wasps with varying degrees of accuracy and the team then presented these models to different predators. They showed that while birds were hard to fool, invertebrate predators were less able to discern between the mimics and accurate wasp models. The results suggest that predator perception plays a key role in the level of accuracy needed to fool them and may help explain the existence of inaccurate mimics in nature. Research article: Taylor et al. News and Views: 3D printing offers a way to study mimicry by insects 12:53 Research Highlights Ritual ‘retirement’ rather than family feud may explain broken statues of a female pharaoh, and how kelp ‘loofahs’ made by killer whales might be the first example of toolmaking by a marine mammal. Research Highlight: The shattered statues of Queen Hatshepsut: the reasons for the wreckage Research Highlight: Killer whales exfoliate each other with home-made scrubbers 15:02 Briefing Chat The sea slugs that steal chloroplasts to snack on, and the researchers re-enacting a Stone Age sea-voyage. Nature: ‘Wildest thing’: solar-powered slug steals chloroplasts and stores them for emergencies Nature: These scientists re-enacted Stone Age voyage to Japan’s remote islands Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We’d like to learn more about our listeners, please help us out by filling in this short survey. In this episode: 00:45 Is AI-research being co-opted to keep track of people? A significant amount of research in the AI field of computer vision is being used to analyse humans in ways that support the development of surveillance technologies, according to new research. By analysing the contents of thousands of research papers, the team behind the work showed that 90% of studies, and 86% of patents resulting from them, involved data relating to imaging humans. While there are many positive applications for this technology, such as in medical diagnostics, this work shows evidence of a pipeline from computer-vision research to surveillance. Research article: Kalluri et al. News and Views: Computer-vision research is hiding its role in creating ‘Big Brother’ technologies Video: Is AI powering Big Brother? Surveillance research is on the rise News: AI research is fuelling human-surveillance tech Editorial: Don’t sleepwalk from computer-vision research into surveillance 09:38 Research Highlights A minuscule robot that can manipulate liquid droplets, and the sensors that can identify hydrothermal explosions at Yellowstone National Park. Research Highlight: This tiny robot moves mini-droplets with ease Research Highlight: Sensors pinpoint the exact time of a Yellowstone explosion 12:12 The first images from the world’s largest digital camera This week, the Vera C. Rubin Observatory in Chile has unveiled the first images from its 3,200 megapixel digital camera. We discuss the images, and how the facility will help researchers learn more about the Universe. News: First images from world’s largest digital camera leave astronomers in awe 19:18 Briefing Chat How scientists created hexanitrogen, a new molecule made of six nitrogen atoms, and the why researchers are excited about the first confirmed skull of an extinct Denisovan. Chemistry World: Most energetic molecule ever made is stable – in liquid nitrogen Nature: First ever skull from ‘Denisovan’ reveals what ancient people looked like Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

We’d like to learn more about our listeners, please help us out by filling in this short survey. In this episode: 00:45 The tiny moths that use the stars to navigate Bogong moths use the stars to help them navigate during their enormous migration across Australia, according to new research. Every year, billions of these nocturnal moths travel up to 1,000 km to cool caves in the Australian Alps, despite having never been there before. By placing moths in a flight-simulator that also acted as a planetarium, the team behind the work showed that moths could use the bright Milky Way to help them fly in the correct direction. Research article: Dreyer et al. 10:17 Research Highlights Nigeria's pangolins are under threat because their meat is delicious, and how the gravitational pull of other galaxies may prevent the Milky Way colliding with Andromeda. Research Highlight: Why pangolins are poached: they’re the tastiest animal around Research Highlight: A long-predicted cosmic collision might not happen after all 12:37 How humans expanded their habitats before migrating out of Africa New research suggests that shortly before modern humans successfully migrated out of Africa, they massively expanded the range of ecosystems they lived in. By combining climate modelling with data from archaeological sites across the African continent, researchers put forward evidence that 70,000 years ago, humans expanded the ecosystems they lived in to include diverse habitat types from forests to deserts. The authors suggest this ability to live in different places may have helped the later humans that migrated out of the continent around 50,000 years ago. Research article: Hallet et al. 21:59 Briefing Chat Blowing bubble-rings could be humpback whales' way of trying to communicate with humans, and the research suggesting that everyone’s breathing pattern is unique. Science Alert: Humpback Whale Bubble Rings May Be an Attempt to Communicate With Us Nature: How you breathe is like a fingerprint that can identify you Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

According to legend, physicist Werner Heisenberg formulated the mathematics behind quantum mechanics in 1925 while on a restorative trip to the remote North Sea island of Heligoland. To celebrate the centenary of this event, several hundred researchers have descended on the island to take part in a conference on all things quantum physics. Nature reporter Lizzie Gibney was also in attendance, and joined us to give an inside track on the meeting. News: Happy birthday quantum mechanics! I got a ticket to the ultimate physics party Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:45 A flexible neural-implant that grows with the brain Researchers have developed a soft electronic implant that can measure brain activity of amphibian embryos as they develop. Understanding the neural activity of developing brains is a key aim for neuroscientists, but conventional, rigid probes can damage growing brains. To overcome this, a team have developed a flexible mesh that stretches with the brain and tested it by monitoring single neuron activity during development of frog and axolotl embryos. More testing and ethical considerations will be required, but the researchers hope that eventually such implants could help with neurological conditions that affect humans. Research article: Sheng et al. 13:11 Research Highlights The exoplanet slowly evaporating into space, and cockatoos that have figured out an innovative way to stay hydrated. Research Highlight: Solved: the mystery of the evaporating planet Research Highlight: Clever cockatoos learn an easy way to quench their thirst 15:30 An AI-based way to repair damaged paintings By combining AI tools with mechanical engineering techniques, a researcher has developed a new way to speed up the restoration of damaged paintings. The technique creates a removable mask that can be overlaid onto a painting to cover any damage apparent in the artwork. It was successfully tested on an oil painting, fixing a large number of damaged areas in only a few hours. This could offer a significant speed-boost to painting restoration, which can often take months, or even years. Research article: Kachkine Video: Meet the engineer who invented an AI-powered way to restore art 27:36 Briefing Chat A new ranking system could make it easier to spot universities that are chasing publishing metrics at the expense of rigorous science, and evidence that cutting off rhinos’ horns deters poachers. Nature: ‘Integrity index’ flags universities with high retraction rates AP: Cutting off rhinos’ horns is a contentious last resort to stop poaching. A new study found it works Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In this Podcast Extra, we examine President Donald Trump's calls for NASA to land humans on Mars. Although the White House has proposed spending some US$1 billion in 2026 on Mars plans, critics say the final cost will likely be hundreds of billions of dollars spread over a number of years. This call comes amidst plans to drastically reduce NASA's funding, and the proposed cancelling of dozens of the space agency's missions, including projects to study Earth, Mars and Venus. News: Trump wants to put humans on Mars — here’s what scientists think News: Five key climate and space projects on Trump’s chopping block News: Are the Trump team’s actions affecting your research? How to contact Nature Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:45 Iron’s role in mice sex determination Iron deficiency in mice mothers can sometimes result in their offspring developing female sex organs despite having male sex genes, according to new research. While genetics has been thought to be the primary factor in determining offspring sex in mammals, the new work shows that a lack of iron disrupts an enzyme involved in the development of testes, leading to some mice with male sex-determining genes being born with female genitalia and ovaries. This suggests that sex determination is controlled by more than genetics, but more work will need to be done to understand the precise mechanisms involved. News: Male mice can grow ovaries if their pregnant mums are iron deficient Research article: Okashita et al. 06:31 Research Highlights How climate change is making dust storms more likely, and understanding the genetics of a boy who couldn’t feel pain. Research Highlight: The perfect storm for dust storms, thanks to global warming Research Highlight: CRISPR helps to show why a boy felt no pain 08:51 The role of small-scale fishers in sustainability The contributions that small-scale fishers make to sustainable fishing have been described as ‘invisible’, but now a huge research project has revealed the role this community plays in feeding populations and protecting oceans. Looking at data from 58 countries, researchers have shown that small-scale fishers account for around 40% of the global catch and feed approximately 25% of the world’s population. The people behind the initiative hope that these data can help give a voice to small-scale fishers as people look for ways to feed the world sustainably. Immersive : Small-scale fisheries 19:44 Briefing Chat The discovery of an ‘ambidextrous’ protein; and why humpback whales, despite their enormous eyes, appear to be shortsighted. Nature: Rare ‘ambidextrous’ protein breaks rules of handedness Discover Magazine: Big Eyes, Blurry Vision: Why Humpback Whales Struggle to See Clearly Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

With the world looking likely to blow past the temperature targets laid out in the 2015 Paris climate agreement, a growing number of voices are saying that carbon removal technologies will be necessary if humanity is to achieve its long-term climate goals. If these approaches succeed, they could help nations and corporations to meet their climate commitments — and help the world to halt global warming. However, questions remain about the financial viability of these technologies, and whether they can live up to the hype. This is an audio version of our Feature: Three ways to cool Earth by pulling carbon from the sky Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:33 Was a boom in papers driven by AI? A spike in papers formulaically analysing a public data set has sparked worries that AI is being used to generate low quality and potentially misleading analyses. Nature: AI linked to explosion of low-quality biomedical research papers 08:07 Lenses that give humans infrared vision Researchers in China have created contact lenses that can allow humans to see infrared light, which could help with search and rescue missions, sending secret messages and even surgery. Nature: These contact lenses give people infrared vision — even with their eyes shut 14:17 Does the Earth's core have a leak? Geologists have uncovered the strongest evidence yet that Earth's core is leaking. Rocks from Hawaii were found to contain isotopes of a rare element, which suggests the material originally came from the core. More work will need to be done to rule out other explanations. Nature: Is Earth’s core leaking? Volcanic rocks provide strongest evidence yet Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:45 Treating mosquitoes for malaria Researchers have developed two compounds that can kill malaria-causing parasites within mosquitoes, an approach they hope could help reduce transmission of the disease. The team showed that these compounds can be embedded into the plastics used to make bed nets, providing an alternative to insecticide-based malaria-control measures, which are losing efficacy in the face of increased resistance. Research article: Probst et al. 10:42 Research Highlights The sunlight-powered device that can harvest drinkable water from desert air, and evidence that the world’s richest people are disproportionately responsible for climate impacts. Research Highlight: Atacama sunshine helps to pull water from thin air Research Highlight: The world’s richest people have an outsized role in climate extremes 13:02 The genetics that can lead to pregnancy loss Researchers have found specific genetic mutations that can lead to pregnancy loss. It’s known that errors, such as the duplication of chromosomes, can lead to nonviable pregnancies but less has been known about non-chromosomal genetic errors. The new work identifies DNA sequence changes that can lead to a non-viable pregnancy. This may offer clinicians the ability to screen embryos for these changes to help avoid pregnancy loss. Research article: Arnadottir et al. 22:24 Briefing Chat Bespoke CRISPR-based therapy treats baby boy with devastating genetic disease, and the ‘anti-spice’ compounds that can lower chillies’ heat. Nature: World’s first personalized CRISPR therapy given to baby with genetic disease New Scientist: Chemists discover 'anti-spice' that could make chilli peppers less hot Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

00:46 An antimatter delivery van takes its first road trip Researchers have developed a portable antimatter containment device and tested it by putting it in a truck and driving it around CERN. Their system could represent a big step forward in efforts to take particles made at CERN’s ‘antimatter factory’ and transport them to other labs, something currently impossible due to antimatter being destroyed upon contact with matter. The team showed the feasibility of their approach by using the system to safely transport particles of matter and are now looking to adapt it to ferry antimatter particles. Research article: Leonhardt et al. 11:45 Research Highlights How a tradition of female diving on a South Korean island might have shaped the genomes of the island’s population, and a poison-dart frog that curiously seems to be monogamous. Research Highlight: How Korea’s female divers have adapted to cold plunges Research Highlight: A ‘hidden gem’ of the Amazon is a frog with odd habits 13:46 The mathematics of a near-miss between black holes Physicists have tackled a longstanding problem in physics — understanding how two black holes gravitationally interact as they fly past each other — which could help with future detections of the gravitational waves that would be created by these events. Rather than repeatedly running expensive computer simulations to approximate the answer to this problem, a team of theorists have come up with a mathematical formula to describe a black hole fly-by, which can be run in a matter of seconds. Their results could be used to identify the tell-tale signatures of these events when they actually occur. Research article: Driesse et al. 22:10 Briefing Chat How physicists turned lead into gold, for a microsecond and at tremendous cost, and the genetics of the skunk cabbage’s foul odour. Nature: Physicists turn lead into gold — for a fraction of a second Video: Scientists turn lead into gold Nature: How skunk cabbages and other smelly plants brew their foul odour Subscribe to Nature Briefing, an unmissable daily round-up of science news, opinion and analysis free in your inbox every weekday. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In this Podcast Extra, we examine recent developments US National Science Foundation, which has seen significant numbers of research grants terminated. In addition, there have been freezes on funding for new grants and any additional money to existing ones. We also discuss US President Donald Trump’s proposed budget for fiscal year 2026, which calls for disproportionately large cuts to federal science funding. News: Exclusive: NSF stops awarding new grants and funding existing ones News: Trump proposes unprecedented budget cuts to US science News: Are the Trump team’s actions affecting your research? How to contact Nature Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.